"The wise are instructed by reason, average minds by experience, the stupid by necessity and the brute by instinct"

Cicero presents a hierarchy of how different types of people are guided in their actions and advances a theory about the sources of human learning and behavior. At the apex are the wise, who are governed by reason. They possess the ability to apprehend principles, foresee consequences, and make choices guided by rational thought. Rather than waiting to make mistakes themselves or requiring the pressure of circumstances, they act from a deep understanding and reflection. Their minds are alert to abstract knowledge and rational arguments, and they benefit from deliberation and forethought.

Average minds, according to Cicero, are taught by experience. They may not possess the depth of analysis the wise have, but they do have the capacity to learn from what happens to them and adapt their actions accordingly. Their knowledge accumulates over time through trial and error. These individuals require tangible examples, successes and failures in real life, to shape their understanding. They are practical, often competent, but their capacity for innovation or anticipation is less developed, as they lack true foresight and rely on direct engagement.

Those Cicero calls stupid, learn only by necessity. Their actions are not informed by foresight or even by accumulated experience but by encountering situations where there is no alternative left but to change. Reform comes only under the compulsion of unavoidable circumstances or disaster. These individuals ignore advice and previous mistakes until they are forcibly confronted by the consequences.

At the lowest level are the brute, who act purely from instinct. Without reason, without reflective experience, and without even learning from necessity, their behavior is entirely reactive and directed by base impulses. Cicero’s classification serves as both an analysis and a critique, promoting rational thought as the highest guide for human action and offering a warning against reliance on lower forms of guidance.